| Jacques René Hébert | |
|---|---|
| Born | November 15, 1757 Alençon, France |
| Died | March 24, 1794 (aged 36) Paris, France |
| Cause of death | Guillotine |
| Residence | Paris, France |
| Nationality | French |
| Other names | Père Duchesne |
| Known for | Editor of Le Père Duchesne |
| Political party | Hébertists |
| Religion | Cult of Reason |
| Spouse | Marie Marguerite Françoise Hébert |
| Children | Scipion-Virginia Hébert (February 7, 1793 - July 13, 1830) |
| Parents | Jacques Hébert (-1766), Marguerite La Beunaiche de Houdré (1727-1787) |
| Signature | |
Jacques René Hébert (November 15, 1757 - March 24, 1794) was a French journalist, and the founder and editor of the extreme radical newspaper Le Père Duchesne during the French Revolution.[1] His followers are usually referred to as the Hébertists or the Hébertistes; he himself is sometimes called Père Duchesne, after his newspaper.
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He was born November 15, 1757 at Alençon, to goldsmith, former trial judge, and deputy consul, Jacques Hébert (died 1766) and Marguerite Beunaiche de Houdrie (1727–1787). Jacques-René Hébert studied law at the College of Alençon and went into practice as a clerk in a solicitor of Alençon, at which time he was ruined by a lawsuit against a Dr. Clouet. Hébert fled first to Rouen and then to Paris. For a while he passed through a difficult financial time and lived through the support of a hairdresser in rue des Noyers. There he found work in a theater, la République, where he wrote plays in his spare time, but these were never produced. He was fired for stealing. He then entered the service of a doctor. It is said he lived through expediency and scams. In 1789 he began his writing with a pamphlet "la Lanterne magique ou le Fléau des Aristocrates" (Magic Lantern, or Scourge of Aristocrats). He published a few booklets. In 1790, he attracted attention through a pamphlet he published, and became a prominent member of the club of the Cordeliers in 1791.
Hébert's influence was mainly due to his articles in his journal, Le Père Duchesne, which appeared from 1790 to 1794. The first publication of Le Père Duchesne occurred in September 1790 and opened a new period in his life. The polemic articles he penned were written with wit, but were also violent and abusive, and purposely couched in foul language in order to appeal to the sans culottes. Street hawkers would yell: Il est bougrement en colère aujourd’hui le père Duchesne! (Father Duchesne is very angry today!). The style in which they were written was first person narrative from Père Duchesne's point of view, and often contained fictitious accounts of conversations the character held with figures of the French government, or monarchy.[2]
Père Duchesne's appearance as a bristly old man with pipe and liberty cap contrasted sharply against the formal attire of the crown and aristocracy.[3] This enabled the general population of France to more easily relate to the character, giving his "words" increased strength.
Initially, 1790–1791, Le Père Duchesne supported a constitutional monarchy and was even favorable towards King Louis XVI and the opinions of the Marquis de La Fayette. His violent attacks of the period were aimed at Jean-Sifrein Maury, a great defender of papal authority and the main opponent of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
With the king's failed flight to Varennes his tone significantly hardened. Starting in 1792 the Paris Commune and the ministers of war Jean-Nicolas Pache and, later, Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte bought several thousand copies of Le Père Duchesne which were distributed free to the public and troops.
Knowing that the queen was an easy target for ridicule after the Diamond Necklace Affair, she became a consistent target in the paper. He referred to Marie Antoinette as 'Madame Veto' and addressed Louis XVI as a 'drunken and lazy; a cuckolded pig.' [4] His venomous attacks on Marie-Antoinette were not entirely out of hatred for the queen, at least not initially. Originally, Hébert was trying to not only educate his readers who she was but simultaneously awaken her to how she was viewed by the French public. Many of the conversations that Père Duchesne carries with her in the newspaper are attempts at either showcasing her supposed nymphomania or attempts to beg her to reconcile her wicked ways.[5]
On July 17, 1791 Hébert was at the Champ de Mars to sign a petition to demand the removal of King Louis XVI and was involved with the subsequent Champ de Mars massacre by troops under Lafayette. This put him in the revolutionary mindset, and the Le Père Duchesne adopted a sloppier style to better to appeal to the masses. Le Père Duchesne began to attack Lafayette, Mirabeau, and Bailly. Following Louis's failed flight to Varennes he began to attack both Louis and Pope Pius VI as well.
He met his future wife, Marie Goupil (born 1756), who was a 37-year-old nun who left convent life at the "Sisters of Providence" convent at rue Saint-Honoré. Marie's passport from this time shows regular use. They married on February 7, 1792, and had a daughter, Virginia Scipion-Hébert (7 February 1793 - 13 July 1830). During this time, Hébert had a luxurious, bourgeois life. He entertained Jean-Nicolas Pache, the mayor of Paris and Minister of War, for weeks, as well as other influential men.
Hébert was like Robespierre and liked to dress elegantly and surround himself with beautiful objects as beautiful tapestries—an attitude that can be contrasted to that of Pierre Gaspard Chaumette. Where he got the financial resources to support his lifestyle, is unclear, however Jean-Nicolas Pache's commissions to print thousands of issues of Le Père Duchesne and his relationship to Delaunay d'Angers, mistress and wife of Andres Maria de Guzman.
As a member of Cordeliers club, he had a seat in the revolutionary Paris Commune where on the 9th and 10th of August, 1792 he was sent to the Bonne-Nouvelle section of Paris. As a public journalist, he supported the September Massacres. On December 22, 1792, he was appointed the second substitute of the procureur of the commune, and through to August 1793 supported the attacks against the Girondin faction. In April–May 1793 he, along with Marat and others, violently attacked Girondins.
In February 1793 he voted with fellow bourgeois Hébertists against the Maximum Price Act, a Price ceiling on grain, on the grounds it would cause hoarding and stir resentment. On May 20, 1793 the moderate majority of the National Convention formed the Special Commission of Twelve, which was designed to investigate and prosecute conspirators. At the urging of the Twelve on May 24, 1793 he was arrested.
However, Hébert had been warned in time, and, with the support of the Sans Culottes, the National Convention was forced to order his release three days later.
On 7 June 1793 Paris sections — encouraged by the enragés ("enraged ones") Jacques Roux and Jacques Hébert — took over the Convention, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral franchise to sans-culottes alone. With the backing of the National Guard, they convinced the Convention to arrest 31 Girondin leaders, including Jacques Pierre Brissot. Following these arrests, the Jacobins gained control of the Committee of Public Safety on 10 June, installing the revolutionary dictatorship. On 13 July the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat — a Jacobin leader and journalist known for his aggressive rhetoric — by Charlotte Corday, a Girondin, resulted in further increase of Jacobin political influence.[6] Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the King, was removed from the Committee. On July 27, Maximillien Robespierre, known as "the Incorruptible", made his entrance, and quickly became the most influential member of the Committee as it moved to take radical measures against the Revolution's domestic and foreign enemies.[7]
Meanwhile, on June 24, the Convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, the French Constitution of 1793. It was ratified by public referendum, but never put into force; like other laws, it was indefinitely suspended by the decree of October that the government of France would be "revolutionary until the peace". The eventual constitution under the Directory was quite different.
Facing local revolts, foreign invasions and riots in both the East and West of the country, the most urgent government business was the war. On August 17, the Convention voted for general conscription, the levée en masse, which mobilized all citizens to serve as soldiers or suppliers in the war effort. On 5 September the Convention institutionalized The Reign of Terror: systematic and lethal repression of perceived enemies within the country.
The result was policy through which the state used violent repression to crush resistance to the government. The guillotine became the symbol of a string of executions: Louis XVI had already been guillotined before the start of the terror; Marie-Antoinette, the Girondins, Philippe Égalité, Madame Roland and many others lost their lives under its blade.[8] The Revolutionary Tribunal summarily condemned thousands of people to death by the guillotine, while mobs beat other victims to death. Sometimes people died for their political opinions or actions, but many for little reason beyond mere suspicion, or because some others had a stake in getting rid of them. Most of the victims received an unceremonious trip to the guillotine in an open wooden cart (the tumbrel). Loaded onto these carts, the victims would proceed through throngs of jeering men and women.
The victims of the Reign of Terror totaled approximately 50,000. Among people who were condemned by the revolutionary tribunals, about 18 percent were aristocrats, 6 percent clergy, 4 percent middle class, and 72 percent were workers or peasants accused of hoarding, evading the draft, desertion, rebellion, and other purported minimal crimes.[9] Of these social groupings, the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church suffered proportionately the greatest loss.
Another anti-clerical uprising was made possible by the installment of the Revolutionary Calendar on October 24. Against Robespierre's concepts of Deism and Virtue, Hébert's (and Chaumette's) atheist movement initiated a religious campaign in order to dechristianize society. The program of dechristianization waged against Catholicism, and eventually against all forms of Christianity, included the deportation of clergy and the condemnation of many of them to death, the closing of churches, the institution of revolutionary and civic cults, the large scale destruction of religious monuments, the outlawing of public and private worship and religious education, forced marriages of the clergy and forced abjurement of their priesthood.[10] The enactment of a law on 21 October 1793 made all suspected priests and all persons who harbored them liable to death on sight.[10] The climax was reached with the celebration of the goddess "Reason" in Notre Dame Cathedral on 10 November. Because dissent was now regarded as counterrevolutionary, extremist enragés such as Hébert and moderate Montagnard indulgents such as Danton were guillotined in the Spring of 1794.[11] On 7 June Robespierre, who had previously condemned the Cult of Reason, advocated a new state religion and recommended that the Convention acknowledge the existence of God. On the next day, the worship of the deistic Supreme Being was inaugurated as an official aspect of the Revolution. Compared with Hébert's somewhat popular festivals, this austere new religion of Virtue was received with signs of hostility by the Parisian public.
After successfully attacking the Girondins, he continued to attack others whom he viewed as too moderate including Danton, Philippeau, and Robespierre in the fall of 1793.
The government, supported by the Jacobins was exasperated and finally decided to strike on the night of March 13, 1794, despite the reluctance of Barère de Vieuzac, Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne. The order was to arrest the leaders of the Hébertists, these included individuals in the War Ministry and others.
In the Revolutionary Tribunal, Hébert was treated very differently from Danton, more like a thief than a conspirator, his earlier scams were brought to light and criticized. He was sentenced to death, along with his co-defendants, on the third day of deliberations. Their execution by guillotine took place on March 24, 1794.[12] His corpse was disposed of in the Madeleine Cemetery. His widow was executed twenty days later on April 13, 1794. Her corpse was disposed of in the Errancis Cemetery.
Hébert's influence within the French Revolution due to his publication, Le Père Duchesne had a strong impact on the outcomes of certain political events. A majority of the political decisions that occurred during the Revolution were a culmilation of small events over time, so Le Père Duchesne's ability to influence the general population of France was indeed notable. Along with his ability to manipulate his reader's perceptions of the revolution, he manipulated the way they perceived the king and queen.
On the day that Marie-Antoinette was on trial, Hébert himself spoke, alleging that she had committed incest with her own son (who was only 7 years old at the time), which sealed her fate in the eyes of the court.[13]